Section 1.1: Anders Ericsson

Anders Ericsson is renowned for his concept of deliberate practice, which suggests that outstanding performance in diverse fields, from music to athletics, stems from extensive, focused practice. His pivotal research began with a longitudinal study that examined how a subject could memorize sequences of digits. While most individuals can recall between five to nine digits, this highly-trained participant could remember over eighty after rigorous training. This revelation led to a lifetime of investigation into how intense practice can transcend perceived limits of human capability.

Ericsson’s work has significantly influenced both Cal Newport and me in developing our course, Top Performer. His emphasis on the importance of strenuous practice has been a cornerstone of my own learning endeavors. Personally, I've embraced the belief that diligent practice can bridge gaps in skill levels. While society often celebrates those who seem innately gifted, I have grown to respect those who hone their abilities through hard work.

For further reading:

• Peak by Ericsson and Robert Pool offers insights aimed at a general audience.
• "The Role of Deliberate Practice" is a notable paper co-authored by Ericsson, Ralf Krampe, and Clemens Tesch-Römer.
• Toward a General Theory of Expertise provides an in-depth look at theories of expert performance.

Section 1.2: John Sweller

Some theorists immediately resonate with you, while others challenge you until you ultimately concede their point. This was my experience with John Sweller. My first exposure to his work revealed that my prior belief—that solving problems independently leads to better learning—was misguided.

Sweller introduced cognitive load theory, which I explored in depth. Essentially, this theory posits that the limitations of working memory are the primary hurdles to acquiring skills not instinctively learned. A significant finding is that students with little prior experience benefit more from observing examples and receiving direct instruction than from attempting to solve problems on their own.

Sweller’s research illuminated the fact that much of the knowledge necessary for mastering complex skills is acquired through others. Barriers such as poor explanations or excessive emphasis on self-discovery can hinder learning.

Recommended readings include:

• Sweller's Cognitive Load Theory in Action by Oliver Lovell.
• "Why Minimal Guidance Doesn't Work," which critiques the notion that self-discovery is always beneficial.
• The Power of Explicit Teaching and Direct Instruction by Greg Ashman, summarizing the evidence supporting cognitive load theory.

The first video, "How philosophy can save your life | Jules Evans | TEDxBreda," provides insights into how philosophical thinking can enhance our understanding of life challenges.

Section 1.3: Robert Bjork

Cognitive psychologist Robert Bjork is known for his theory of desirable difficulties, which posits that certain educational interventions may initially seem less effective yet contribute to long-term retention and adaptability. Key aspects of desirable difficulties include:

• Spacing: Distributing study sessions over time enhances long-term retention, despite lower short-term performance.
• Retrieval: Actively recalling information strengthens memory more effectively than passive review.
• Variability: Practicing diverse examples in one session may slow immediate learning but improves transferability to new contexts.

Interestingly, students often fail to recognize the value of these challenges and tend to favor easier practices that may not promote enduring learning.

For further exploration, consider:

• "A New Theory of Disuse" by Bjork and Elizabeth Bjork, which discusses memory retrieval and storage.
• Self-Regulated Learning, summarizing the concept of desirable difficulties.

Section 1.4: Michelene Chi

Michelene Chi's research, especially her studies on how experts and novices categorize problems, has been influential. She found that experts organize problems based on underlying principles, whereas novices tend to focus on superficial characteristics.

This disparity highlights a common frustration for educators: despite multiple instructional experiences, novices often lack the ability to apply abstract concepts across various contexts. Developing a true understanding requires exposure to diverse examples and experiences, which many traditional courses may not offer.

Further reading includes:

• "Categorization and Representation of Physics Problems by Experts and Novices," co-authored with Robert Glaser and Paul Feltovich.
• "Eliciting Self-Explanations Improves Understanding," which explores how student-led explanations can foster deeper comprehension.

Section 2.1: Herbert Simon

Herbert Simon, a multifaceted thinker, made significant contributions to artificial intelligence and the psychology of complex skills. His theory of problem-solving emphasizes the necessity of constructing a mental representation of a problem, which allows individuals to navigate various solutions effectively.

The majority of problems we encounter involve vast problem spaces, and we often rely on learned methods from others to simplify these challenges.

For further insight, consider:

• Human Problem Solving, co-authored with Allen Newell.
• "Perception in Chess," which posits that chess expertise relies on extensive perceptual knowledge.

Section 2.2: John Anderson

John Anderson’s career-long work with ACT-R diverges from typical psychological theories by attempting to simulate the entire mental process of skill acquisition. His research suggests that cognitive skills are rooted in both declarative and procedural memory.

For those interested in his work:

• The Transfer of Cognitive Skill, co-authored with Mark Singley, provides a demonstration of the theory.
• "The Atomic Components of Thought," co-authored with Christian Lebiere, outlines ACT-R theory in detail.